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- Proteins made from ribosomes attached to the rough
- endoplasmic reticulum enter the lumen of the ER and move
- to the smooth endoplasmic reticulum. A small vacuole
- (vesicle) pinches off the smooth ER and carries the protein
- to the Golgi apparatus, where it is further processed.
- -------------------------------------------------------------
- Mitochondria are bounded by a double membrane. The inner
- membrane is folded to form little shelves, called cristae,
- which project into the matrix, an inner space filled with
- a gel-like fluid.
- --------------------------------------------------------------
- A vacuole is a large membrane-enclosed sac that usually
- functions as a storage area. Plant vacuoles contain not
- only water, sugars, and salts but also pigments and toxic
- substances. The pigments are responsible for many of the
- red, blue, or purple colors of flowers and some leaves.
- ------------------------------------------------------------
- The green pigment chlorophyll, found within the grana,
- makes chloroplasts and leaves green. Chlorophyll absorbs
- solar energy, and chloroplasts convert this energy into
- ATP molecules.
- -----------------------------------------------------------
- Chloroplasts carry on the process of photosynthesis, in
- which light energy is used to produce food molecules, such
- as glucose. Chloroplasts take in carbon dioxide, water,
- and solar energy in order to produce glucose and oxygen.
- ------------------------------------------------------------
- The energy-related organelles, chloroplasts and
- mitochondria, convert one form of energy into another.
- While chloroplasts are unique to plant cells, mitochondria
- are found in both plant and animal cells.
- -------------------------------------------------------------
- Chloroplasts carry on photosynthesis, during which light
- energy (photo) is used to produce food molecules, like
- glucose (synthesis). Chloroplasts take in carbon dioxide,
- water, and solar energy in order to produce glucose and
- give off oxygen.
- ------------------------------------------------------------
- Mitochondria are often called the powerhouses of the cell:
- just as a powerhouse burns fuel to produce electricity,
- the mitochondria convert the chemical energy of glucose
- products into the chemical energy of ATP molecules.
- --------------------------------------------------------------
- Chromatin, a threadlike material, contains DNA and is
- found within the nucleus. At the time of cell division,
- chromatin condenses into rodlike structures called
- chromosomes.
- ----------------------------------------------------------
- The middle lamellae, a region between cell walls, contains
- a sticky substance, usually pectin. Lignin is a substance
- found in secondary cell walls that makes them even
- stronger than primary cell walls.
- ------------------------------------------------------------
- Autodigestion is important during development. For
- example, when a tadpole becomes a frog, the enzymes within
- lysosomes digest the cells of the tail, and the fingers of
- a human embryo are at first webbed, but they are freed
- from one another by lysosomal action.
- -------------------------------------------------------------
- Lysosomes, vesicles formed by the Golgi apparatus, contain
- hydrolytic enzymes that can digest macromolecules.
- Macromolecules are sometimes brought into a cell in
- vesicles formed at the cell membrane. A lysosome can fuse
- with such a vesicle and digest its contents into simpler
- molecules, which then enter the cytoplasm.
- -------------------------------------------------------------
- Special vacuoles (membrane-enclosed sacs) called
- peroxisomes are often attached to smooth ER, and these
- contain enzymes capable of detoxifying drugs.
- -------------------------------------------------------
- A chloroplast is bounded by a double membrane. Inside the
- structure, there is even more membrane organized into
- flattened sacs called thylakoids. The thylakoids are
- piled up like stacks of coins, and each stack is called a
- granum. There are membranous connections between the
- grana called lamellae. The fluid-filled space about the
- grana is called the stroma.
- -------------------------------------------------------------
- Inside the chloroplast, there is membrane organized into
- flattened sacs called thylakoids. The thylakoids are
- piled up like stacks of coins, and each stack is called a
- granum. The fluid-filled space about the grana is called
- the stroma.
- -------------------------------------------------------------
- The nucleus is a large organelle that has a nuclear
- envelope, chromatin and nucleoli. The nuclear envelope is
- a double membrane that keeps the contents of the nucleus
- separate from the cell's cytoplasm. Pores in the nuclear
- envelope allow large molecules to pass into and out of the
- nucleoplasm, the fluid interior of the nucleus.
- -------------------------------------------------------------
- Ribosomes are the site of protein synthesis in the
- cytoplasm. They can be attached to the endoplasmic
- reticulum or lie free within the cytoplasm. When several
- ribosomes are making the same protein, they are arranged
- in a functional group called a polysome.
- ------------------------------------------------------------
- Both plant and animal cells have cell membranes, nuclear
- membranes, mitochondria, and vacuoles. Chloroplasts are
- found in plant cells but not in animal cells.
- ----------------------------------------------------------
- All plants have a cell wall, located outside the cell
- membrane. The primary cell wall contains cellulose
- whereas the secondary cell walls contain lignin. The
- middle lamella, a region between cell walls, contains a
- sticky substance, usually pectin.
- ----------------------------------------------------------
- In the process of aerobic cellular respiration,
- mitochondria convert the chemical energy of glucose
- (carbohydrate) into the chemical energy of ATP molecules.
- In the process, mitochondria use up oxygen and give off
- carbon dioxide and water.
- --------------------------------------------------------------
- Smooth ER, which lacks ribosomes, produces different
- molecules in different cells. It is abundant in the
- testes and adrenal cortex, both of which produce steroid
- hormones. In the liver, smooth ER is involved in the
- detoxification of drugs, including alcohol.
- ----------------------------------------------------------
- The Golgi apparatus is composed of a stack of about a
- half dozen or more saccules (flattened vacuoles, which
- look like hollow pancakes). One side of the stack, called
- the inner face, is directed toward the nucleus and the
- ER. The other side of the stack, called the outer face,
- is directed toward the cell membrane.
- -----------------------------------------------------------
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